Juneteenth: Perfecting the Republic (Part 2)
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Let’s be honest: the Civil War was far from “civil.”
And this social conflict composes more than a North-South geography, despite the narrative of the Mason-Dixon line. Neither was it about Federalism versus states’ rights, even though this initially had some merit. It’s also more than just “rebels” vs. “Unionists” fighting to keep America as “one nation.”
Only a few things can divide families to bleed for a cause. And force entire states to secede to keep their convictions. This is the nuance of the Civil War (1860-1865). At its heart, it was a purely political battle between two competing worldviews over America’s present and future. What began as a “culture war” eventually ended in nearly three-quarters of a million lives lost. It’s the most in any American war, wiping out an entire American generation.
The Rise of the Democratic Party (1828)
In 1828, with Andrew Jackson’s election to president by a new populist movement, the old Jeffersonian Democratic-Republican party evolved into the new Democratic Party. At the heart of Democratic ideology were several convictions, most notably the institution of slavery. This was particularly true in the South, where cotton was the economic engine of the region. Thanks to Eli Whitney’s cotton gin, the South was able to compete modestly with Northern industries.
Jackson’s populist presidency set the tone for a new political Democratic party that believed in the political and economic interests of the “common man,” advocated for expanded voting rights, limited federal government, and rugged individualism. Core tenets of the party under Jackson also included strict opposition to economic elites, aggressive territorial expansion, and the preservation of white male supremacy.
In general, Jacksonian Democrats believed in:
1. Empowering the “Common Man”
Universal White Male Suffrage: Democrats worked hard to remove property ownership and taxpaying requirements for voting, believing that all white adult males should have equal political rights, no matter their wealth or social class.
The Spoils System: Jackson believed in rotating officeholders to help prevent the rise of entrenched elites. He gladly rewarded his political supporters with government jobs, trusting that ordinary citizens were capable of managing government responsibilities effectively.
2. Limited Government & Laissez-Faire Economics
Anti-Monopoly & Anti-Bank: Jackson was very critical of the Second Bank of the United States. He saw it as an unjust and exclusive institution that held too much power with wealthy eastern financiers, often leaving ordinary farmers and workers at a disadvantage.
Fiscal Restraint: Reflecting the ideas of Thomas Jefferson, Jacksonian Democrats preferred a straightforward, modest, and unobtrusive federal government. They were against federally funded internal improvements such as roads and canals, believing these projects could increase centralized authority and benefit the well-connected.
3. Agrarianism & Westward Expansion
Manifest Destiny: Jackson was a firm supporter of the United States’ westward expansion, believing it was essential for providing more land for white, farming communities. He passionately believed in the importance of expanding westward to create more opportunities for white, agrarian farmers.
Indian Removal: His administration passed and enforced the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which the U.S. Supreme Court later viewed as unconstitutional. They also authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes in the Southeast to territories west of the Mississippi River, all to make way for white settlement.
4. National Unity and States’ Rights
Preserving the Union: Jackson was a passionate nationalist who strongly opposed nullification and secession. He firmly believed that the federal Union was lasting and inseparable.
States’ Rights on Slavery: Jackson strongly opposed the abolitionist movement. He and his party saw abolitionism as a disruptive force that could jeopardize the union, and they actively supported “gag rules” in Congress to block the discussion of antislavery petitions.
The Emergence of the Republican Party (1854)
Lincoln’s “Grand Old Party” (Republicans) proved more than a debating society. Created in the 1850s as an Anti-Slavery party, the Republican Party attracted abolitionists, Free Soilers, former Whigs, and Christian reformers. It specifically drew those who believed slavery violated the Declaration’s promise that “all men are created equal.”
That principle was more than just political talk; it was the heart and soul of the movement. At first, Republicans dedicated themselves to ending slavery, but by 1860, Lincoln Republicans sought more middle ground:
Free Soil & Free Labor: Republicans believed that the “normal condition” for all U.S. territories should be “freedom,” and they rejected the idea that Congress or local legislatures had the authority to legalize slavery in these territories.
Economic Growth: The party supported protective tariffs to help Northern industry and manufacturing thrive, pushed for a Homestead Act to offer free land in the West to settlers, and championed federal funding for a transcontinental railroad.
Preservation of the Union: Republicans passionately opposed any moves to dissolve the Union and wholeheartedly supported the right of each state to manage its own internal affairs.
Anti-Slavery Extension: Although Republicans worked to prevent the spread of slavery and abolish it, they didn’t argue that the federal government had the power to abolish it in states where it was already legal. The final decision came down to the states. Lincoln would later change this approach. Some “American” issues are bigger than the rights of any particular state or collection of a few states.
The Lincoln Effect: Not My President
In 1860, a contentious election in a fractured nation resulted in Abraham Lincoln’s election to the presidency.
Within three months of his win, Lincoln watched Southern states, one by one, secede from the Union. They chose to form a “Confederate” nation under a new constitution and president named Jefferson Davis. First it was South Carolina (December 20, 1860), then Mississippi (January 9, 1861), Florida (January 10, 1861), Alabama (January 11, 1861), Georgia (January 19, 1861), Louisiana (January 26, 1861), and Texas (February 1, 1861). Between April 17 and June 8, four more states would join in late spring 1861: Virginia (April 17), Arkansas (May 6), North Carolina (May 20) and Tennessee (June 8). This confederacy of states was constituted in the same way the original 13 colonies were organized beneath the “Articles of Confederation.”
Then came the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861.
Perfecting the Union
In 1857, the U.S. Supreme Court issued the Dred Scott opinion.
Dred Scott was a slave who sued his owner for his freedom. Scott argued that because his master had taken him to reside in Illinois (a free state) and the Wisconsin Territory (a free federal territory where slavery was prohibited by the Missouri Compromise), he was legally a free man.
In a 7-2 decision, the Court ruled against Scott. Chief Justice Roger B. Taney delivered the majority opinion.
The Court stated that Black people—whether enslaved or free—were not citizens of the United States and therefore could not enjoy the rights and protections the Constitution granted to citizens. The Court also declared the Missouri Compromise of 1820 unconstitutional. It established that Congress had no authority to prohibit slavery in federal territories.
The Court ruled that enslaved people were property under the Fifth Amendment, and that any law depriving an enslaver of their “property” without due process was unconstitutional.
By de facto nationalizing slavery and stripping African Americans of constitutional rights, the ruling outraged abolitionists and Northerners. It deepened the political divide and is widely regarded as a major precursor to the American Civil War.
The ruling is universally considered the worst decision in Supreme Court history. The decision was ultimately voided by the 13th Amendment (which abolished slavery) and the 14th Amendment (which granted citizenship to all persons born in the United States) following the Civil War.
The Dred Scott opinion revealed the political divide between Democrats and Republicans.
A divide that eventually erupted in war within three years.
And America would never be the same again